The Sun Dance is the most important communal religious ceremony of many Indigenous nations of the North American Great Plains, including the Lakota, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Blackfoot, Crow, Shoshone and Plains Cree. Held in early summer around a sacred central pole, it involves prayer, fasting, dancing and personal sacrifice for the renewal and well-being of the people and the world.
Sun Dance at a glance
| Region | Great Plains of the United States and Canada |
|---|---|
| Practiced by | Lakota, Dakota, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Blackfoot, Crow, Shoshone, Plains Cree and others |
| Season | Usually early summer |
| Lakota name | Wiwanyang Wacipi (often translated "sun-gazing dance") |
| Suppression | Restricted in the US from the 1880s; key elements banned in Canada 1895-1951 |
| Legal protection (US) | American Indian Religious Freedom Act, 1978 |
Overview
"Sun Dance" is an English term used for a family of related ceremonies that vary considerably from nation to nation. They share a common structure: a gathering of bands in early summer, the construction of a special lodge or arbor around a sacred tree chosen and cut with ceremony, and several days of prayer, singing, drumming and dancing in which participants fast from food and water. The ceremony is sponsored by individuals who have made vows, often in thanks for help received or in prayer for the healing of relatives.
The Sun Dance is a living religious tradition, not a historical curiosity. Many communities regard its details as sacred and private, and outsiders are expected to respect restrictions on observation, photography and participation.
Meaning and practice
For participants, the Sun Dance is an act of sacrifice and renewal. By offering their bodies and endurance, dancers pray for the welfare of their families, the community and all living things, and for the continuing renewal of the earth. The central pole is often understood as a link between earth and the sacred powers above.
In some traditions, notably among the Lakota and other Plains peoples, certain dancers fulfill vows by piercing: skewers are inserted through the skin of the chest or back and tied by ropes to the central pole, and the dancer pulls back until the skin tears free. This practice, which drew the most attention from outsiders, is a personal offering; many other nations and participants dance without piercing. Accounts of the ceremony stress generosity, gift-giving and shared feasting as equally important.
Suppression by governments
In the late nineteenth century, government agents and missionaries regarded the Sun Dance as an obstacle to assimilation. In the United States, federal regulations for Courts of Indian Offenses issued in 1883 prohibited the Sun Dance and other ceremonies, and agents on many reservations enforced bans for decades. Some communities continued in secret or held modified versions on national holidays.
In Canada, an 1895 amendment to the Indian Act banned ceremonies that involved wounding or mutilation and the giving away of goods, targeting the Sun Dance and the potlatch. The prohibition was dropped in the 1951 revision of the Act. In the United States, the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 affirmed the right of Native Americans to practice their traditional religions.
Revival and the present day
From the mid-twentieth century onward, and especially from the 1970s, the Sun Dance experienced a strong revival as part of a broader renewal of Indigenous cultural and religious life. Today it is held annually by many communities across the Plains and beyond, and it has spread to some nations that did not traditionally practice it.
Participation by non-Native people has been controversial. In 2003 a group of Lakota, Dakota and Nakota spiritual leaders issued a proclamation calling for non-Natives to be excluded from the altars of their ceremonies, reflecting concern about appropriation and misuse of sacred practices. Communities differ in their policies, and respectful visitors follow the guidance of the host nation.
Study and related traditions
Early ethnographers, including researchers working for the Smithsonian's Bureau of American Ethnology, documented the ceremony in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, sometimes with the help of Indigenous collaborators. Religious studies scholars have compared the Sun Dance with other rites of sacrifice and world renewal, and with the personal quest for spiritual power described under guardian spirit.
Readers may also explore the broader themes of animal worship and ancestor worship, and solar deities in other cultures such as the Andean creator Viracocha.
Oral tradition and sacred teachings
Many nations trace the ceremony to sacred teachings received long ago. Among the Lakota, the Sun Dance is counted among the seven sacred rites associated with the White Buffalo Calf Woman, as described by the Oglala holy man Black Elk in The Sacred Pipe (1953), recorded by Joseph Epes Brown. Other nations preserve their own accounts of how the ceremony was given to them.
These teachings are passed down by spiritual leaders and ceremonial families, and much of their content is not shared publicly. Written descriptions by outsiders are necessarily partial and should be read with that limitation in mind.
Related entries
Frequently asked questions
What is the purpose of the Sun Dance?
The Sun Dance is a ceremony of prayer, sacrifice and renewal. Participants fast, dance and in some traditions make offerings of their own flesh to pray for their families, the community and the renewal of the earth. It also brings bands together, strengthening social and spiritual bonds through shared ritual and gift-giving.
Was the Sun Dance illegal?
Yes. In the United States, regulations issued in 1883 banned the Sun Dance and other ceremonies on reservations, and enforcement continued for decades. In Canada, an 1895 amendment to the Indian Act banned key elements until 1951. The American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 later affirmed Native religious rights.
Can non-Native people attend a Sun Dance?
It depends on the community. Some ceremonies allow invited guests to observe under strict rules, while others are closed. In 2003 a group of Lakota, Dakota and Nakota spiritual leaders called for non-Natives to be excluded from participating at the altars. Visitors should always follow the host nation's guidance.
Sources and further reading
This entry replaces an article from the original Mystica encyclopedia (online since 2001). It was rewritten from the sources above by The Mystica Editorial Team under our editorial standards. Last reviewed: September 30, 2026.