Manichaeism was a religion founded in the third century CE by the prophet Mani (216-c. 276) in Sasanian Mesopotamia. It taught that the universe is a mixture of two eternal principles, Light and Darkness, and that salvation means freeing particles of light trapped in matter. Once spread from the Roman Empire to China, it later disappeared as an organized faith.
Manichaeism at a glance
| Founder | Mani (216-c. 276 CE), called the "Apostle of Light" |
|---|---|
| Origin | Mesopotamia, in the Sasanian Persian Empire |
| Core teaching | Two principles, Light and Darkness, and three ages of time |
| Scriptures | Seven canonical works by Mani, six in Syriac; the Shabuhragan in Middle Persian |
| Community | The Elect and the Hearers (catechumens) |
| Extent | From North Africa and Rome to Central Asia and China |
Mani and the origins of the religion
Mani was born in 216 CE near Ctesiphon, the capital region of the Parthian and later Sasanian empires, in what is now Iraq. According to Manichaean tradition, preserved in the Greek Cologne Mani Codex, he grew up in a Jewish-Christian baptist community known as the Elchasaites and received revelations from a heavenly twin that led him to break with them.
Mani presented himself as the last in a line of prophets that included Zoroaster, the Buddha and Jesus, and as the Paraclete promised in the Gospel of John. He won the favor of the Sasanian king Shapur I, for whom he wrote the Shabuhragan, and sent missionaries east and west. Under Bahram I, however, the influence of the Zoroastrian priesthood turned against him. Mani was imprisoned and died in captivity around 276 or 277.
Teachings: the two principles and the three times
At the heart of Manichaeism is a radical dualism. In the beginning, Light and Darkness existed as separate realms. In the "middle time," the forces of Darkness attacked the realm of Light and swallowed part of it, so that the present world is a mixture of the two. Human beings, whose souls are particles of light imprisoned in bodies of darkness, stand at the center of this drama.
Salvation consists in knowledge of this situation and in a disciplined life that helps release the captured light. Manichaean myth describes a series of divine emanations sent to rescue it, and in the "last time" the light will be fully separated and Darkness confined forever. Evil is therefore not a mere absence of good but an independent, active power.
Community, ethics and scriptures
The Manichaean church was divided into the Elect, who lived under strict rules of celibacy, vegetarianism and avoidance of harm to the light in plants and animals, and the Hearers, lay supporters who married, worked and provided food for the Elect. Hearers hoped to be reborn as Elect in a future life. The community was led by a hierarchy of teachers, bishops and elders under a single head.
Mani deliberately wrote his own scriptures so that his teaching would not be distorted after his death, as he believed had happened to earlier prophets. These included the Living Gospel and other works, most in Syriac, and a picture book illustrating his doctrine. Much of this literature was lost, but fragments survive in Coptic from Egypt, in Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian and Old Uyghur from Turfan in Central Asia, and in Chinese.
Spread in the West and East
Manichaean missionaries reached the Roman Empire in the late third century, and communities formed in Egypt, North Africa, Rome and elsewhere. Roman emperors issued edicts against the religion, and Christian writers attacked it. The most famous former Manichaean was Augustine of Hippo, who was a Hearer for about nine years before converting to Catholic Christianity and later writing against his former faith.
In the East, Manichaeism traveled along the Silk Road. In the eighth century it was adopted by rulers of the Uyghur Khaganate, one of the few times it enjoyed state support. In China it survived, often under persecution and mixed with Buddhist and Daoist elements, into the late imperial period. A shrine at Cao'an in Fujian province is often described as the last surviving Manichaean temple building.
Decline and the later use of the name
By the late Middle Ages Manichaeism had disappeared as an organized religion. It faced persecution in the Roman, Persian and Islamic worlds and later in China, and its demanding ethic for the Elect limited its growth. Yet its name lived on. Medieval Christian authors used "Manichaean" as a label for any group believed to teach two principles, including the Bogomils and Cathars, although historians debate how far these movements descended from Mani's church.
In modern English, "Manichaean" is often used loosely to describe any black-and-white view of the world as a battle between absolute good and absolute evil. Scholars of the Devil in Western thought also point to Manichaeism as an important example of a fully independent evil principle, in contrast to the created, rebellious Satan of mainstream Christianity.
Manichaeism in modern scholarship
For centuries Manichaeism was known almost entirely from its enemies, such as Augustine and Christian heresiologists, and from Islamic writers who described it. Discoveries of original texts in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, especially the Turfan finds in Central Asia, the Coptic Medinet Madi codices in Egypt and the Cologne Mani Codex, transformed the field.
Today Manichaeism is studied as a major world religion of late antiquity, notable for its missionary reach, its use of translation and art, and its deliberate synthesis of Christian, Zoroastrian and Buddhist ideas. It is often compared with Iranian beliefs about Ahriman and with Gnostic groups such as the Ophites.
Related entries
Frequently asked questions
What did Manichaeism believe?
Manichaeism taught that the world is a mixture of two eternal principles, Light and Darkness. Human souls are particles of light trapped in material bodies, and salvation comes through knowledge and a disciplined life that helps free the light. The Elect followed strict rules, while lay Hearers supported them and hoped for a better rebirth.
Who founded Manichaeism?
Manichaeism was founded by Mani, a prophet born in 216 CE near Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia. He saw himself as the final prophet after Zoroaster, the Buddha and Jesus, wrote his own scriptures and sent missionaries across the Persian and Roman worlds. He died in prison around 276 or 277 under the Sasanian king Bahram I.
Does Manichaeism still exist today?
Manichaeism no longer exists as an organized religion. It disappeared in the West during late antiquity and the Middle Ages and survived longest in China, where it gradually merged with local traditions. A few modern groups have claimed inspiration from Mani, but they have no direct historical continuity with the ancient church.
Sources and further reading
This entry replaces an article from the original Mystica encyclopedia (online since 2001). It was rewritten from the sources above by The Mystica Editorial Team under our editorial standards. Last reviewed: September 30, 2026.