Anthroposophy is a spiritual philosophy and movement founded by the Austrian esotericist Rudolf Steiner in the early twentieth century. It holds that a spiritual world exists and can be known through disciplined inner development. Beyond its teachings, anthroposophy gave rise to Waldorf education, biodynamic agriculture, eurythmy and anthroposophic medicine, some of which remain controversial.
Anthroposophy at a glance
| Founder | Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925) |
|---|---|
| Founded | 1912-1913, as a break from the Theosophical Society |
| Headquarters | Goetheanum, Dornach, Switzerland |
| Meaning of name | Greek anthropos (human) and sophia (wisdom) |
| Key works by Steiner | The Philosophy of Freedom (1894); Theosophy (1904); How to Know Higher Worlds; Occult Science (1910) |
| Applications | Waldorf schools, biodynamic farming, eurythmy, anthroposophic medicine |
Origins in Theosophy
Rudolf Steiner, born in 1861 in Kraljevec (then in the Kingdom of Hungary, now Croatia), began his career as a scholar of Goethe's scientific writings and a philosopher; his Philosophy of Freedom appeared in 1894. Around 1900 he turned to esoteric lecturing and in 1902 became general secretary of the German section of the Theosophical Society founded by Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steele Olcott.
Tensions grew over Steiner's Western and Christ-centered orientation and over the Theosophical leadership's promotion of the young Jiddu Krishnamurti as a coming world teacher. In 1912-1913 Steiner and most German members left to form the Anthroposophical Society.
Core teachings
Steiner called his approach "spiritual science." He claimed that, just as natural science studies the physical world, trained faculties of thinking and perception could investigate spiritual realities with comparable clarity. His book How to Know Higher Worlds describes exercises of meditation, concentration and moral development meant to awaken such faculties.
Anthroposophy describes the human being as composed of physical, etheric and astral bodies and an "I," and teaches reincarnation and karma. Steiner presented a vast account of cosmic and human evolution through successive planetary stages and past civilizations, including Atlantis and Lemuria, which he said he read in the Akashic records. The incarnation of Christ holds a central place in this scheme as the turning point of earthly evolution. Steiner also taught of opposing spiritual powers he called Lucifer and Ahriman, the latter name borrowed from Zoroastrian tradition.
The Goetheanum and the Society
Steiner designed a center for the movement at Dornach, near Basel, called the Goetheanum in honor of Goethe. The first building, a double-domed wooden structure, burned down on New Year's Eve 1922-1923. A second building in cast concrete, also designed by Steiner, was completed in 1928, after his death, and remains the headquarters of the General Anthroposophical Society. At the Christmas Conference of 1923-1924 Steiner refounded the society and its School of Spiritual Science. He died in Dornach in 1925, having given thousands of lectures that were later published.
Christianity and the Christian Community
Steiner gave a central place to Christ, whom he described as a cosmic being whose incarnation in Jesus marked the turning point of earthly evolution, and he lectured extensively on the Gospels. He distinguished this esoteric Christology from church doctrine, and mainstream Christian theologians have generally rejected it. In 1922 a group of theologians and pastors, led by Friedrich Rittelmeyer, founded the Christian Community, a movement for religious renewal that drew on Steiner's guidance but remains organizationally separate from the Anthroposophical Society.
Anthroposophy also developed a distinctive calendar of festivals and meditative practices tied to the seasons, such as Michaelmas, celebrated in many Waldorf schools. Steiner's lectures on the spiritual background of these festivals are widely read within the movement. Many members combine study groups on Steiner's texts with work in education, farming or care, and the movement has national societies in dozens of countries.
Practical applications
Much of anthroposophy's public influence comes from its practical offshoots. The first Waldorf school opened in Stuttgart in 1919 for the children of workers at the Waldorf-Astoria cigarette factory, at the invitation of its director Emil Molt. Waldorf or Steiner schools are now found in many countries and emphasize arts, crafts and developmental stages of childhood.
Biodynamic agriculture grew out of a course of lectures Steiner gave at Koberwitz in 1924; it combines organic methods with special preparations and attention to cosmic rhythms. Eurythmy, developed with Marie von Sivers (later Marie Steiner), is a movement art that expresses speech and music. Other initiatives include anthroposophic medicine, the Camphill communities for people with disabilities, and ethical banking.
Criticism and controversy
Scientists and skeptics have criticized anthroposophy's claims to be a science, arguing that Steiner's clairvoyant findings cannot be tested. Anthroposophic medicine, including mistletoe preparations for cancer, lacks convincing evidence of effectiveness, and biodynamic preparations have not been shown to add benefits beyond ordinary organic practice. Some Waldorf communities have been associated with lower vaccination rates.
Steiner's writings on human evolution also contain racial hierarchies, and scholars have noted contradictions in his views on race and nationality. Historians have documented both opposition to and accommodation with the Nazi regime among anthroposophists. Supporters reply that the movement's educational and social work has been widely constructive. Anthroposophy is often compared with other modern esoteric paths such as those of G. I. Gurdjieff.
Related entries
Frequently asked questions
What do anthroposophists believe?
Anthroposophists believe that a real spiritual world exists and can be known through trained thinking, meditation and moral development. Following Rudolf Steiner, they generally accept reincarnation and karma, a description of the human being with physical, etheric and astral bodies and an I, and a central role for Christ in human evolution.
Are Waldorf schools anthroposophical?
Waldorf schools were founded on Rudolf Steiner's educational ideas, beginning with a school in Stuttgart in 1919, and their curriculum is based on anthroposophy's view of child development. Individual schools vary in how explicitly they present anthroposophy, and most do not teach it directly to pupils as a subject.
What is the difference between Theosophy and Anthroposophy?
Anthroposophy began as a branch of the Theosophical Society, and the two share ideas such as karma, reincarnation and hidden spiritual knowledge. Theosophy draws heavily on Hindu and Buddhist sources, while Rudolf Steiner gave anthroposophy a Western, Christ-centered orientation and developed practical fields such as education, farming and the arts.
Sources and further reading
This entry replaces an article from the original Mystica encyclopedia (online since 2001). It was rewritten from the sources above by The Mystica Editorial Team under our editorial standards. Last reviewed: September 30, 2026.